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Cover of the 2013 book titled A History of Eighteenth Century German Porcelain by Christina Nelson and Letitia Roberts

Glossary of English and German Porcelain Terms

Last updated: July 2, 2014

The following list of terms complements Nelson and Roberts, A History of Eighteenth-Century German Porcelain: The Warda Stevens Stout Collection, 2013.

Foreign terms appear in italics. References are those used in the bibliography of the book.

Arbeiter  (workman)
A general term. An employee of another person or enterprise.
See also Mitarbeiter.
Arbeitsform(en), Form(en)  (mold/s)
Plaster working mold(s). The negative form into which clay is pressed when making a figure or vessel of several parts. Usually called a Form.
See also Mutterform.
Arkanum  (arcanum)
The sum total of the secret processes and ingredients intended to lead to successful porcelain manufacture. The arcanum included information on the origin and selection of raw materials, as well as the proportions and preparations of raw ingredients for the paste, glaze and colors. It also included the specialized knowledge of kiln construction and successful firing techniques. The color arcanum focused on knowledge necessary to make and use applied coloring agents in porcelain decoration, including specialized knowledge of appropriate raw materials, as well as their proportions, firing and origins.
Art teacher/master  (Zeichenlehrer)
See Zeichenlehrer.
Aufglasurfarben  (overglaze colors)
See Overglaze Colors.
Aufglasurmalerei  (overglaze painting)
See Overglaze Colors.
Ausformung  (cast)
A figure made using the working molds.
Ausschusszeichen  (cancellation marks)
See Cancellation marks.
Bildhauer  (sculptor)
An artist who fashions a three-dimensional object in stone, wood, ivory, or metal. In porcelain factories, they provided models in clay, wood or plaster of Paris.
See Sculptor.
Bildnis  (portrait)
A likeness, or portrait of a person (or persons) with special attention given to facial characteristics.
Biscuit  (Biskuit)
A general term used to describe unglazed ware resulting from the first firing, which is sometimes called the "biscuit firing." In French, it also refers to porcelain, often figures and groups, intentionally left unglazed to more closely resemble marble.
Biscuit firing  (Schrühbrand, Verglühbrand, Glühbrand, Trockenbrand, and the 18th century Rohbrand)
The first firing, intended to harden the clay body. For hard paste porcelain, it is carried out at temperatures of 900-1100 degrees Celsius (1652-2012 degrees Fahrenheit), depending on the composition of the clays comprising the body.
Biskuit  (biscuit)
See Biscuit.
Blaumaler  ("blue painter")
A painter of underglaze blue decoration and marks. Although their work required great skill, painters of underglaze blue decoration earned less than their colleagues who painted decoration over the glaze, probably because wares with underglaze blue decoration were cheaper to produce; as a result, they were the least expensive type of decorated porcelain available to the public.
See also Maler.
Body  (Masse, Scherben, paste)
A general term for the combined materials from which earthenware, stoneware and porcelain objects are made. May also refer to the qualities of the fired material, and does not include glazing material or decoration.
Bossierer, pl. Bossierer; also the slightly older spelling "Poussierer"  (repairer)
This important worker assembled molded pieces of an object, often a figure, using liquid clay or "slip" (see Slip) as an adhesive, before firing according to the design of the modeler. In some factories, especially at the beginning of production, there was no Modelleur or Modellmeister, and the Bossierer performed the function of creating models to be produced in the factory. The role of the Bossierer was especially critical in assembling the components of porcelain sculpture, and bringing out the details with sharp tools, but he also worked with vessels, attaching handles, spouts, knops, and applied decoration. The workshop was supervised by the Bossiereraufseher, or head Bossierer.
Bossiereraufseher  ("Bossierer overseer")
Supervisor of the Bossierer workshop; the head Bossierer.
Bowl  (Schale)
See Schale.
Brenner  ("burner")
May also be a contraction of Oberbrenner.
See Kiln master.
Buntmaler  ("polychrome painter")
A painter who decorated porcelain using fired polychrome enamel colors.
See also Maler.
Camaïeu  (same in English)
Monochromatic enamel painted decoration, usually rose, purple, blue, or occasionally green.
Cancellation marks  (Ausschusszeichen)
One or several lines or scratches (added by hand) across a factory&39;s underglaze blue mark indicating an object of inferior or "second" quality; sold by the factory at a lower price and often purchased by Hausmaler.
Capsel or Kapsel  (saggar)
See Saggar.
Cast (Ausformung)
See Ausformung.
Cavetto  (Steigebord, Kehle)
The curved section of a plate or dish that joins the well to the rim.
Centerpiece  (Tafelaufsatz, Platmenage, plat de ménage)
See Tafelaufsatz.
Ceramics  (Keramik)
A term encompassing all objects made of clay, most often fired, including earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain. Objects fall into one of these three general categories based on composition of the clay, its firing properties and the firing temperature.
Clay  (Ton)
Fine earth composed primarily of hydrous aluminum silicates resulting from the decomposition of rock; plastic when wet, it may be used for various ceramic bodies, depending on the composition and processing.
Colors  (Farben)
See Farben.
Craquelierung, Krakelierung  (crazing)
See Crazing.
Crazing  (Craqueliering, Krakelierungt)
The tiny cracks (seen as lines) in a glaze resulting from the different rates of shrinkage between body and glaze as the object cools after firing. In the West, crazing (which may occur on other bodies as well as porcelain) is generally considered a defect; in China it was often induced as an intentional part of the decoration.
Cream-colored earthenware/creamware  (Steingut)
Refined light-colored lead-glazed earthenware body developed in England in the second quarter of the eighteenth century to imitate the appearance of porcelain, which was more costly. The cream-colored body and lead glaze were perfected by Josiah Wedgwood between 1763 and 1768; the product was officially named "Queens ware" in 1766 when Wedgwood was named "Potter to Her Majesty," Queen Charlotte, although the term "Queens ware" was unofficially used in 1765 after she took delivery of a creamware tea set. The body and stylish forms introduced by Wedgwood were copied all over Europe. (Reilly 1995, pp. 122-23; 358-59.) The French-made version is called faience fine. Faience anglaise denoted imported English cream-colored wares.
Delftware  (faience)
See Faience.
Dessert  (Konfekt)
See Konfekt.
Dessert plate  (Konfektteller)
Any plate for the dessert course, both serving pieces and individual plates for each diner. Usually part of a set.
Deutsche Blumen  (same in English - literally "German flowers")
Enamel decoration depicting flowers common in Germany and the rest of northern Europe.
Drainer, strainer  (Sieb)
See Mazarine, Sieb.
Dreher  (turner)
The worker who formed a ceramic vessel on the wheel, often using small hand-held tools.
Edge  (Verstoss, Tellerkante)
The narrow, outermost part of the rim (or brim) of a plate, saucer, or bowl; the terms "rim" and "edge" are often confused.
See also Rand and Fahne.
Einsatzschale  (liner)
See Liner.
Fahne  (rim)
See Rim.
Faience/Fayence  (faience, delftware)
Tin-glazed earthenware. A general term denoting a low-fired, unvitrified body with a glaze containing tin oxide to make it white and opaque. The term "faience" probably derives from "Faenza," the Italian town whose tin-glazed wares (Maiolica) were exported to France in the sixteenth century. The term is used in northern Europe (France, Germany and Scandinavia) to describe this ware as well as similar earthenwares of ancient Egypt and the Middle East. The tin-glazed earthenwares of Holland and England are usually called "delftware" in English, after the town in Holland often associated with its manufacture. This body is more fragile than porcelain, and it chipped easily. Faience fine is French cream-colored earthenware made in imitation of English creamware.
Farben  (colors)
Both underglaze color and overglaze enamels. Often used as a suffix.
See Unterglasurfarben, Underglaze colors, Aufglasurfarben, Overglaze colors.
Fond  (well and ground color)
A word with two meanings:
Footring/footrim  (Standring, Standrändchen)
The low circular or shaped ring on the bottom of plates and vessels which very slightly elevates the object. As it is often distinctive, examination of the footring may aid in attribution to a country or a specific factory.
Form  (form)
See Arbeitsform.
Former  (former)
The worker who pressed the clay into molds for vessels and figures. When nearly dry, or "leather hard," the pieces were assembled by the Bossierer.
Frittenporzellan  (soft paste porcelain)
White, glassy, and translucent like hard paste porcelain, this body contains white clay, powdered glass and other materials, but no kaolin. Fired around 1200 degrees Celsius, lower than true porcelain, it is more fragile than hard paste porcelain.
See also Porcelain.
Galanterie/Galanteriewaren
Fashionable, often costly and decorative small personal accessories such as snuff boxes, vinaigrettes, needle cases, cane handles, and pipe tampers.
Garbrand, also Glattbrand  (glaze firing)
The second firing.
See Glaze firing.
Geschirr  (tableware)
A very general term categorizing wares used for food and beverages. The term includes plates, dishes, and serving pieces for dinner and dessert courses; also includes cups, saucers, pots, and other objects necessary for the service of tea, coffee, chocolate, and any food that accompanied these beverages. Does not include sculpture.
Giesser  (spout)
See Spout.
Glasurbrand  (glaze firing)
The second firing.
See Glaze firing.
Glattbrand, also Garbrand  (glaze firing)
The second firing.
See Glaze firing.
Glaze firing  (Glattbrand, Garbrand , Glasurbrand)
The second firing. Carried out at temperatures of 1400-1450 degrees Celsius (2552-2642 degrees Fahrenheit), this firing fused the glaze to the body rendering the finished product hard, white, and usually translucent to transmitted light.
Glühbrand  (biscuit firing)
The first firing.
See Biscuit firing.
Ground color  (Fond)
A base color serving as a background on dinnerware or vases; "reserves" (white areas of the porcelain intentionally blocked from color) received painted enamel decoration.
Hals  (neck)
See Neck.
Handle  (Henkel)
See Henkel.
Hard paste porcelain  (Hartporzellan)
See Porcelain.
Hartporzellan  (hard paste porcelain)
Porcelain with a high kaolin content (40-60%), mixed with feldspar and quartz, fired at high temperature (See Glaze firing).
Hausmaler, pl. Hausmaler  (same in English - literally "house painter/s")
An independent decorator who painted porcelain at home or in a small workshop, either for himself or on contract with a factory. He might be an independent businessman who bought seconds from the porcelain factories, decorating, firing and selling them for his own profit. Alternatively, an independent decorator also might paint on contract outside the factory, sending his wares to the factory for firing and sale. It is speculated that Schöllhammer at Höchst may have worked in this manner. More research is needed on this important aspect of the porcelain industry.
Hausmalerei  (objects painted at home)
The work of a Hausmaler.
Henkel  (handle)
Hof  (court)
Often combined with another noun to designate a person or department in the administrative structure surrounding a ruler:
Impressed mark  (Prägezeichen, Prägemarke, Prägestempel)
See Prägezeichen; see also Incised marks (Ritzzeichen).
Incised mark  (Ritzzeichen)
A mark scratched freehand into the clay before firing to indicate the worker, size, model, or kiln placement of the object on which the mark appears.
See also Impressed marks (Prägezeichen, Prägemarke, Prägestempel).
Indianische Blumen  (same in English - literally "Indian flowers")
Painted enamel decoration inspired by that seen on porcelain imported from the Far East, principally porcelain from Japan painted in the style used by the Kakiemon family.
Kaolin, kaolinic clay  (Kaolin, Porzellanerde)
The essential ingredient for hard paste porcelain.
Kammerdiener  (valet)
Translated today as "valet," in the eighteenth century the man occupying this position appears to have been more than a servant; the post seems to have carried some prestige, power, and governmental reponsibility. Perhaps an honorific title in the manner of a courtier?
Kapsel, Capsel  (saggar)
See Sagger.
Kehle  (cavetto)
See Cavetto.
Kiln master  (Oberbrenner)
See Oberbrenner.
Knauf  (knop)
See Knop.
Knop  (Knauf)
The small attached protrusion used to lift a lid or cover of a beverage pot, tureen, or sugar bowl.
Konfekt  (dessert)
Fruit, ice-cream, and various sweets served after the main courses of a meal, often in a different location. Porcelain was first used on the dessert table in Europe. In addition to plates and serving pieces, porcelain figures played a prominent role in the dessert presentation, replacing sugar sculptures, which disintegrated over time.
Konfektschale  (dessert bowl)
A shallow bowl for serving sweets; usually part of a dessert service.
Konfektteller (dessert plate)
See Dessert plate.
Krakelierung (crazing)
See Crazing.
Liner  (Einsatzschale)
The inner, removable, section of a multipart vessel, such as an ice cream cooler. With no drainage holes, an Einsatzschale retained its contents.
Lip  (Schnaupe)
The roughly v-shaped bend in the rim of a pitcher or jug, opposite the handle, which guides the flow of liquid from a vessel, usually a pitcher or jug. Not a spout (see Spout).
Maler  (painter)
A general term given to the worker who applied painted decoration to porcelain, either in underglaze blue (Blaumaler) or as a painter using polychrome enamels over the glaze (Buntmaler). Enamel painters often specialized in certain subjects (flowers, fruit, landscapes, figures, Watteau subjects, etc.) and were ranked in the hierarchy and in salary according to their skills and the difficulty of their specialties. Virtuoso painters like Ringler, Riedel and Oettner, for example, painted many subjects. Indeed, highly skilled painters like Oettner prided themselves on their ability to paint all subject matter. Apprentices genrally began painting flowers to hone their skills. Flower painters generally earned less than painters of fruit and those who painted landscapes; figure painters generally ranked first among the painters.
See Painter; see also Blaumaler and Buntmaler.
Marken  (marks)
See Marks.
Marks  (Marken)
Masse, also Scherben  (paste)
See Body.
Mazarine  (drainer, strainer)
See Sieb.
Mitarbeiter  (co-worker)
A workman employed by another person or entity; a colleague; an employee of a factory
Model  (Modell)
See Modell. See also Model and Model for important distinctions.
Model  (mold)
The negative form (mold, or Arbeitsform) into which clay is pressed when making a figure or a vessel of several parts. Rarely used. Distinct from Modell and Model. (Lessmann 2006, p. 148.)
See Arbeistform.
Modeler/s  (Modelleur, pl. Modelleure )
See Modeller.
Modell  (model or prototype)
The prototype of a figure or vessel created by the modeler in clay, plaster of Paris, or wood. Distinct from Model.
Modelleur, pl. Modelleure  (modeler/s)
The worker who created the design and original example, or prototype (Modell), of figures and tableware for production in the factory. These valued workers were often in short supply; sometimes a Bossierer (see above) was called on to carry out the duties. Some modelers trained as sculptors; many worked in other media (such as stone, wood, or ivory) before or after employment in a porcelain factory.
Mold  (Arbeitsform, Form)
See Arbeitsform.
Montierung  (mount)
Metal, usually silver, gold, or pewter, added to an object to increase it usefulness, value, appearance, or aesthetic impact. Mounts appear in many configurations, including metal strips applied to rims to cover chips, hinged metal lids secured to handles, and small chains between lids and handles to prevent the lid from falling. Mounts may be added at any time over the life of the object. Some were added immediately after the porcelain was manufactured, either in collaboration with an independent metalsmith or, very rarely, in the factory.
Muffel, plural Muffeln  (saggar for the muffle kiln.)
Used when firing overglaze painting of porcelain and fayence in order to protect the objects from fire damage and blemishes from floating debris such as wood ashes. They were first used in 1620. (Lessmann 2006, p. 148)
For more detail, see Saggar.
Muffelfarben  ("muffle colors")
Overglaze enamel colors; they were fired in a muffle kiln.
Muffle kiln  (Muffel, Schmeltzofen)
The kiln in which colors used in decoration were fired and affixed to the glazed porcelain. With a firing temperature around 800-850 degrees Celsius (1472-1562 Fahrenheit), the colors were permanently affixed to glazed porcelain, ideally without damaging the glaze or the body.
Muster  (pattern)
One of the stock designs used repeatedly by a factory to decorate its wares, either over or under the glaze. Often used as a suffix.
See Strohblumenmuster.
Mutterform  ("mother form")
Cast of the original sculpture used to make the Arbeitsform(en), or working mold(s).
Neck  (Hals)
The narrower, often cylindrical, part of a vase projecting upward from the shoulder; may be long or short.
Oberbossierer  (supervising Bossierer)
Supervisor of the Bossierer workshop.
Oberbrenner  (kiln master)
The worker charged with supervision of the kilns, the wood, the firings, and the workers charged with the firing process. The Oberbrenner also possessed knowledge of kiln construction.
Obermaler  (supervising painter)
Supervisor of the porcelain painting department.
Ofen  (kiln)
A general term for the specialized brick structure used for firing biscuit porcelain, and to affix the glaze or decoration. Usually appearing with a prefix:
Overglaze colors  (Aufglasurfarben)
Enamels which contain metal oxide as a coloring agent. They were painted as decoration over the glaze (Aufglasurmalerei) and fired in a muffle kiln to around 800-850 degrees Celsius (1472-1562 degrees Farhenheit) to permanently afix the colors:
      Blau (blue)
Braun (brown)
Eisenrot (iron red)
Gelb (yellow)
Grün (green)
Purpur (purple)
Rot (red)
Schwarz (black)
Weiss (white)
Overglaze enamels
See Overglaze colors.
Overglaze painting  (Aufglasurmalerei)
See Overglaze colors.
Paar  (pair)
When referring to cups and saucers, "ein Paar" indicates one cup and one saucer. This may possibly arise from the custom of using the saucer as a drinking vessel. The hot beverage was poured into the saucer to cool and was then consumed directly from the saucer. The custom of "saucering" tea was adopted in America, leading to the popularity of small "cup plates," mostly of pressed glass, in the first half of the nineteenth century. After pouring the hot tea from the cup into the saucer, the cup was then placed onto the cup plate (usually 3 1/2 to 4 inches in diameter) to catch any liquid from the side of the cup, thus preventing damage to the surface (usually furniture) on which it was placed.
Painter  (Maler)
A general term. By adding a prefix, the duties might be further defined: An artist specializing in the decoration of porcelain sculpture was known as a Staffierer.
See Staffierer.
Pair  (Paar)
See Paar.
Paste  (Masse, Scherben)
The combined clays; may also indicate the qualities of the porcelain body.
See Body.
Pattern  (Muster)
See Muster.
Platmenage, plat de ménage  (center piece)
See Tafelaufsatz.
Porcelain  (Porzellan)
Falling into several subgroups, porcelain may be hard paste, soft paste, or one of the composite bodies developed in the nineteenth century such as bone china. Objects fall into one of the these categories based on firing temperature and clays used.
See Hartporzellan; see also Frittenporzellan.
Portrait  (Bildnis)
See Bildnis.
Porzellan  (porcelain)
See Porcelain.
Porzellanerde ("porcelain earth")
See Kaolin.
Poussierer   (repairer)
See Bossierer.
Prägezeichen, Prägemarke, Prägestempel  (impressed mark)
A letter or symbol pressed into the unfired clay using a small hand-held stamp, often metal.
See also Incised mark.
Prototype, Model  (Modell)
See Modell.
Rand  (rim)
See Rim.
Repairer  (Bossierer, Poussierer)
See Bossierer.
Rim  (Rand, Fahne)
The wide, flat, often angled section of a plate encircling the cavetto, which is above the well (Spiegel, the flat center surface of a plate). "Rim" may also be used to indicate the uppermost section of pitcher. For plates in particular, the term "rim" is often confused with "edge."
See Edge; see also Cavetto, Well, and Spiegel.
Ritzzeichen  (incised marks)
Marks scratched freehand into the clay before firing.
See also Impressed marks (Prägezeichen, Prägemarke, Prägestempel).
Rohbrand
See Biscuit firing.
Saggar  (Kapsel or Capsel; see also Muffel)
The fired clay container into which unfired ceramics were placed. Saggars were placed in the kiln and meant to protect their contents from smoke, flames, floating debris and uneven or destructively intense heat during firing. Numerous saggars were used for each firing. The saggars were stacked in the kiln according to the composition of the body and the size and shape of the objects they contained.
Schale  (bowl)
General term. May have a prefix to further identify the function: see Konfektschale.
Scherben (or Masse)
See Body.
Schlicker  (slip)
See Slip.
Schnaupe  (spout)
See Spout.
Schrühbrand  (first,or biscuit firing)
See Biscuit Firing.
Schulter  (shoulder)
The wide area of a vase just below the neck (Hals).
Schwarzlot  (same in English)
Painting in black enamel, usually in the style of engravings; gilding and iron red were sometimes added. Highly developed at the DuPaquier factory in Vienna and favored by the Hausmaler. Also used on glass and fayence. An unusual technique in imitation of Schwarzlot was used by Canon Busch (see Nelson and Roberts 2013, 148)
Sculptor  (Bildhauer)
In porcelain factories, a Bildhauer provided models in clay, wood, or plaster of Paris. Before joining a factory, he may have trained and worked in stone, ivory, or wood.
Shoulder  (Schulter)
see Schulter.
Sieb  (mazarine, drainer, strainer)
A flat, pierced inset meant to strain liquid from poached fish into a matching platter below.
Slip  (Schlicker)
Clay mixed with water to the consistency of heavy cream. Used to assemble and attach molded pieces of an object such as the arms of a figure, as well as handles, spouts, and knops of lidded vessels.
Soft paste porcelain  (Frittenporzellan)
See Frittenporzellan.
Spiegel  (well)
The (usually) flat center of a plate; the deepest recessed surface of a plate.
Spout  (Schnaupe, Giesser, Tülle)
The protruding, tubular form attached to a tea, coffee, or punch pot, opposite the handle, through which the liquid passes from the pot into a cup or another vessel; in chocolate pots, it is at right angles to the handle. Not the same as Lip.
See Lip.
Staffierer, pl. Staffierer  (decorator of figures)
A painter who specialized in decorating porcelain sculpture.
Standrändchen  (footring)
See Footring/footrim.
Standring  (footring)
See Footring/footrim.
Steigebord  (cavetto)
See Cavetto.
Steingut  (creamware)
See Cream-colored earthenware.
Steinzeug  (stoneware)
A high-fired ceramic body in which the components partly vitrify, making it impervious to liquid.
Stoneware  (Steinzug)
See Steinzeug.
Streublumen  (scattered flowers)
Enamel decoration of European flowers scattered, seemingly at random across a porcelain surface, sometimes to cover small surface blemishes.
Strohblumen  (straw flowers)
Decoration consisting of vines, simple leaves, and flowers, usually in underglaze blue. Widely used throughout Europe. In Germany, the design was especially popular in Thuringia.
Strohblumenmuster  (straw flowers pattern)
See Strohblumen.
Tableware  (Geschirr)
See Geschirr.
Tafelaufsatz  (object for the center of the dining table, platmenage, or the French plat de ménage)
A general term indicating a multifunctional object of silver, porcelain or glass for the center of the dining table. Often very elaborate and sculptural, the Tafelaufsatz, or platmenage, as it was commonly called in eighteenth century Germany, held containers for oil and vinegar, pepper, salt, other condiments, and sweetmeats; German designs for the platmenage also often show candleholders. The form was doubtless inspired by the French surtout de table developed in France toward the end of the seventeenth century and popular at the court of Louis XIV. (See Bursche 1974, pp. 33-36, 204-298, 324-25)
Tafelkultur  (literally "table culture")
The all-inclusive term encompassing the customs regulating the presentation and service of meals, including role of the host, menu, arrangement of silver and porcelain services (including figures revealing a theme to direct conversation), role of servants, etc.
Tafelzier  (table decoration)
The sculpture, vases, Tafelaufsatz, and other elements enhancing the appearance of the table.
Teller  (plate)
A general term. It may have a prefix (Konfektteller, for example) further identifying its function.
Tellerkante  (edge or rim)
See Edge.
Trockenbrand  ("drying firing")
See Biscuit Firing.
Tülle  (spout)
See Spout.
Turner  (Dreher)
See Dreher.
Underglaze color  (Unterglasurfarbe)
Colored decoration applied before the glaze firing. Underglaze blue (cobalt oxide) was the only underglaze color used in Germany until the first quarter of the nineteenth century.
Unterglasurfarbe,, pl. Unterglasurfarben  (underglaze color)
See Underglaze color.
Verglübrand  (first firing)
See Biscuit firing.
Verstoss  (edge)
See Edge.
Weichporzellan  (soft paste porcelain)
See Frittenporzellan.
Well  (Spiegel)
See Spiegel.
Working form  (Arbeitsform)
See Arbeitsform.
Worker  (Arbeiter)
See Arbeiter.
Zeichenlehrer  (Art teacher/instructor; drawing master)
A person who instructs others in an artistic endeavor, especially in drawing, sketching, or design, such as a drawing master

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